Appropriate feedstuff for captive okapi
This page describes appropriate feedstuff for captive okapi. These recommendations are made taking into consideration the physiological, metabolic and behavioural needs of this species, as well as the feasibility and practicality of a captive diet from a zoo's perspective.
Browse
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Browse is an essential component to the diet of captive okapi. It is important for the nutrition and health of the browsing animals (Clauss and Hatt 2006). Browse is an excellent source of fibre (important for gut health), and given that okapi are reluctant to eat grass hay (zoos' traditional source of fibre), browse needs to be incorporated into the captive diet (Clauss et al. 2003). Browse also requires manipulation in order for the animal to process it, fulfilling important okapi foraging motivation (click here for associated behavioural issues surrounding
not fulfilling feeding behavioural needs).
Ideally, browse should be available to captive okapi every day; however this can be difficult during colder months and in particular for city zoos (Clauss and Hatt 2006; Nijboer et al. 2006). Some zoos have conserved browse for colder months using drying and freezing, but problems have been experienced using these methods, including palatability of the end product and cost (Nijboer et al. 2006). Success has been reported with making browse silage, using a couple of different methods. Both methods start by harvesting fresh browse during the growing months:
For both methods it is important that the silage is kept air-tight for the anaerobic fermentation process to be successful (Clauss and Hatt 2006: Nijboer et al. 2006). Allowing air into the containers/wrapping can cause the silage to spoil and develop mould, and cannot be fed to the animals (Clauss and Hatt 2006).
In terms of choosing suitable and safe species of browse to feed to okapi, it is important to remember that these animals are adapted to eat a wide range of species (Clauss et al. 2006), and, have mechanisms in place to counteract the effects of secondary plant compounds and toxins (Foley et al. 1995; Hart 2013). Therefore keepers should bear this adaptation in mind when choosing browse to offer to their okapi. Below is a short list of browse species successfully fed to captive okapi; a much more comprehensive list can be found here (from the Okapi Management Website), and highlights the ability of these animals to consume a wide variety of browse species.
not fulfilling feeding behavioural needs).
Ideally, browse should be available to captive okapi every day; however this can be difficult during colder months and in particular for city zoos (Clauss and Hatt 2006; Nijboer et al. 2006). Some zoos have conserved browse for colder months using drying and freezing, but problems have been experienced using these methods, including palatability of the end product and cost (Nijboer et al. 2006). Success has been reported with making browse silage, using a couple of different methods. Both methods start by harvesting fresh browse during the growing months:
- Method one: The browse was put through a chaff cutter, and packed tightly into plastic sealed containers below 20 degrees Celsius for six months (Clauss and Hatt 2006). The end product was analysed and showed no significant differences in nutrient composition pre- and post- silaging, and was successfully fed to black rhinos, Diceros bicornis (Clauss and Hatt 2006).
- Method two: Willow and poplar branches were bailed through a baling machine and tightly wrapped in plastic, excluding most of the air (Nijboer et al. 2006). The fermentation process lasted six - eight weeks, and the end product was fed to okapi, giraffe and other browsers, which showed a preference for the silage over frozen browse (Nijboer et al. 2006).
For both methods it is important that the silage is kept air-tight for the anaerobic fermentation process to be successful (Clauss and Hatt 2006: Nijboer et al. 2006). Allowing air into the containers/wrapping can cause the silage to spoil and develop mould, and cannot be fed to the animals (Clauss and Hatt 2006).
In terms of choosing suitable and safe species of browse to feed to okapi, it is important to remember that these animals are adapted to eat a wide range of species (Clauss et al. 2006), and, have mechanisms in place to counteract the effects of secondary plant compounds and toxins (Foley et al. 1995; Hart 2013). Therefore keepers should bear this adaptation in mind when choosing browse to offer to their okapi. Below is a short list of browse species successfully fed to captive okapi; a much more comprehensive list can be found here (from the Okapi Management Website), and highlights the ability of these animals to consume a wide variety of browse species.
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Ideally, browse in one form or another should be offered to captive okapi daily, and should make up as high a proportion of the diet as possible. However, as discussed the amount of browse that many zoos can practically provide to their okapi can often be limited, and so other sources of roughage are recommended and described below.
Lucerne hay
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Lucerne, or alfalfa, hay is commonly fed to okapi in captivity and its feeding is recommended in the Okapi SSP Feeding Guidelines (Crissey et al. 2001). Lucerne hay offered to okapi must be leafy and of high quality, as okapi have limited gut capacity and providing a diet providing enough energy can be difficult (Crissey et al. 2001). The feeding of lucerne hay has been implicated in the development of phytobezoars in the closely related giraffe (click here for more information) (Hummel and Clauss 2006), and there have been reports of palatability problems with feeding lucerne hay to okapi (Hummel et al. 2005b). However, given the practical issues of providing a browse-only diet, lucerne hay is a good and feasible part of a captive okapi diet. Additionally, In terms of fermentation rate, lucerne hay has been reported to show similar characteristics to that of browse and can therefore be considered an adequate substitute (Hummel et al. 2006c). While lucerne hay is unlikely to take as long for the animals' to manipulate and process, it can be presented in ways that will extend this time and help to fulfil foraging motivation (such as placing it inside small holed haynets, or hayrack with small holed-mesh).
The quality and nutritional content of lucerne hay depends upon the soil and growing conditions that the crop is grown in; therefore any deficencies of certain minerals in the soil will be reflected in the hay (Stichler and Bade 1997). Zoos must therefore regularly test the nutritional content of their lucerne hay to determine the content and quality, and make adjustments in the quantity of hay fed as appropriate (Crissey et al. 2001).
The quality and nutritional content of lucerne hay depends upon the soil and growing conditions that the crop is grown in; therefore any deficencies of certain minerals in the soil will be reflected in the hay (Stichler and Bade 1997). Zoos must therefore regularly test the nutritional content of their lucerne hay to determine the content and quality, and make adjustments in the quantity of hay fed as appropriate (Crissey et al. 2001).
Pellets and unmolassed beet pulp
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Pellets are commonly fed to ensure that okapi have a nutritionally complete diet (Crissey et al. 2001). As described above, depending on the quality, lucerne hay may lack appropriate levels of certain important minerals (Stichler and Bade 1997), and may not provide adequate energy; therefore the feeding of nutritionally balanced pellets can make up for this.
Suitable pellets should have high levels of fibre, important for gut health and function (Clauss et al. 2003), and be low in highly-digestible starch or sugar which can cause digestive upsets such as rumen acidosis (Hummel et al. 2005b).
Unmolassed beet pulp has been reported to be a suitable substitute for pelleted feed, providing adequate amounts of energy, high levels of fibre, and a reduced likelihood of inducing digestive upsets (such as rumen acidosis) (Hummel et al. 2005b; Hummel et al. 2006c).
Suitable pellets should have high levels of fibre, important for gut health and function (Clauss et al. 2003), and be low in highly-digestible starch or sugar which can cause digestive upsets such as rumen acidosis (Hummel et al. 2005b).
Unmolassed beet pulp has been reported to be a suitable substitute for pelleted feed, providing adequate amounts of energy, high levels of fibre, and a reduced likelihood of inducing digestive upsets (such as rumen acidosis) (Hummel et al. 2005b; Hummel et al. 2006c).
Fruits and vegetables
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Fruits and vegetables, while not a part of the okapi's wild diet (Crissey et al. 2001), are commonly fed in captivity (Huisman et al. 2008). However, these readily-digestible feedstuffs with their high sugar contents are associated with a wide range of health problems (for more information click here), such as: rumen acidosis (Hummel 2006b); laminitis and other hoof problems (Clauss and Kiefer 2003; Zenker et al. 2009); and glucosuria (Vercammen et al. 2003). Therefore, the feeding of fruits and vegetables is not recommended for captive okapi.
Suggested quantities of appropriate feedstuff for a captive diet
The Okapi SSP Feeding Guidelines (click here for more information) make the following recommendations:
- 25% of the diet should be pelleted food.
- At least 50% of the diet should be browse and/or lucerne hay
- Fruit and vegetables are not required in the diet. However, they can be offered in small quantities as long as they do not negatively affect the diet and health of the animals for training purposes and/or to hide oral medication. Fruit and vegetables should make up no more than 25% of the diet (Crissey et al. 2001). Given the associated problems discussed above with the feeding of fruit and vegetables, it is recommended that this type of food is fed sparingly.